Social Work and Family Violence, 2nd Edition
Theories, Assessment, and Intervention
Chapter 1: Introduction to Family Violence
Conservative annual estimates suggest that 4 to 9 million people are the victims of family violence and 171 million (or 60% of the population) are at risk of violence. The estimated cost of these acts of violence to taxpayers easily exceeds $1 trillion a year (Dubble, 2006; Thomas, Leicht, Hughes, Madigan, & Dowell, 2003). Family violence affects everyone, either directly or indirectly.
In this book, attention is given to child maltreatment, intimate partner violence, and older adult abuse. Although these three categories are discussed separately, they are interconnected. Adults who were abused as children have a high probability of becoming abusive parents, victims, or perpetrators themselves in abusive intimate relationships. Although far from inevitable, the pattern of intergenerational violence affects millions of families annually (Hurley & Jaffe, 1999). Furthermore, families may be affected by multiple forms of violence occurring simultaneously.
This chapter introduces family violence and the general perspective from which the book is written. Its theories, values, and contents are based on the family health perspective, the National Association of Social Workers’ (
Categories of Family Violence
Child maltreatment or child abuse includes any nonaccidental injury to a child by an adult and, according to the federal Child Abuse Prevention and Treatment Act (
Intimate partner violence (
Older adult abuse, also referred to as mistreatment of older adults (Lithwick, Beaulieu, Gravel, & Straka, 2000) and elder mistreatment (Loue, 2001), is “any knowing, intentional, or negligent act by a caregiver or any other person that causes harm or a serious risk of harm to a vulnerable adult” (National Center on Elder Abuse, n.d.), occurring to individuals 60 years of age and over. These acts can occur in the person’s home or in an institutional setting. Older adult abuse includes at least seven common types: physical, emotional or psychological, sexual, financial or other material exploitation, abandonment, neglect, and self-neglect (Jogerst et al., 2003). Although statistics and definitions of older adult abuse vary, it is estimated that every year, 600,000 older adults are the victims of older adult abuse (Teaster et al., 2006).
Family Health Perspective
The family health perspective (Pardeck & Yuen, 1997), the foundation for this book, defines a family as a system of two or more interacting persons who are related by ties of marriage, birth, adoption, or personal choice, and have committed themselves to each other as a unit for the common purpose of promoting the physical, mental, emotional, social, cultural, financial, and spiritual growth and development of each unit member. This definition goes beyond the traditional definition of a family as a husband and wife with children. Family is self-defined by the individual as to whether the other members are human, animal, and/or deceased individuals who form the person’s personally defined family.
The family health perspective is based on an integration of the biopsychosocial and ecological perspectives, systems theory, social constructionist theory, and postmodernism (Pardeck & Yuen, 1997). It emphasizes the importance of focusing on clients’ total well-being (physical, psychological, mental, spiritual, financial, social, and cultural), allows clients to interpret their own levels of health, and stresses the importance of understanding clients as they influence and are influenced by their families and society.
Components of the family health perspective (i.e., systems theory and the ecological approach) are concerned with humans as they interact with each other and the world around them. The ecological approach assumes that the environment is embodied by living and dynamic interactions, whereas social systems theory assumes that the environment also includes inanimate operations (Kirst-Ashman & Hull, 2009). These theories apply to interventions that take place at any level (micro, mezzo, or macro); thus, they help social workers to integrate those therapeutic approaches that are most appropriate for their clients and to attend to environmental policies and planning activities that will enhance their clients’ total well-being.
Other components of the family health perspective (i.e., the social construction theory and postmodern perspective) emphasize the ability of individuals to interpret their own reality and the celebration of diversity. These theories are in keeping with the profession’s values of the dignity and worth of all persons and the importance of human relationships. These values are reflected in the
Family Violence and the Social Worker Code of Ethics
The commitment to clients (Standard 1.01) as well as to social and political action on behalf of vulnerable populations (Standard 6.04) align the family health perspective with the National Association of Social Workers’ Code of Ethics. It provides the values, ethics, and conduct to be adhered to by social workers, among which is the commitment of service to help families experiencing family violence. These values and ethics have been adapted into principles congruent for social work within the area of family violence (Exhibit 1.1).
EXHIBIT 1.1 SOCIAL WORK CODE OF ETHICS: VALUES, ETHICS, AND PRINCIPLES AS APPLIED TO FAMILY VIOLENCE
| Values | Ethics | Principles |
|---|---|---|
| Service | Social workers’ primary goal is to help people in need and to address social problems | Social workers will use their knowledge, values, and skills to address the social problem of family violence ( |
| Social justice | Social workers challenge social injustice | Social workers will pursue necessary changes on all systems levels on behalf of victims and perpetrators of |
| Dignity and worth of the person | Social workers respect the inherent dignity and worth of the person | Social workers treat each person, including victims and perpetrators of |
| Importance of human relationships | Social workers recognize the central importance of human relationships | Social workers value relationships between and among victims of |
| Integrity | Social workers behave in a trustworthy manner | Social workers act in a manner consistent with the Code of Ethics and will, thus, be honest and responsible in working with clients experiencing |
| Competence | Social workers practice within their areas of competence and develop and enhance their professional expertise | Social workers will increase their knowledge and skills for assisting victims of |
Social Workers and Family Violence
With their professional mission to serve vulnerable populations—which is inclusive of children, women, and older adults—social workers are at the forefront of the effort to eliminate family violence. According to
These assessment and intervention processes are assisted by the family health perspective, with its fluid definition of a family, evaluation of all aspects of the family’s health, and consideration not only of the family interactions but also of the family in relation to all levels of systems, even into the global community. Assessment of families can be in relation to their physical health (Wu et al., 2004), emotional health (Russell, Lazenbatt, Freeman, & Marcenes, 2004), mental health (Stipanicic, Nolin, Fortin, & Gobeil, 2008), spirituality (Sadler & Biggs, 2006), financial status (Kaushal, Gao, & Waldfogel, 2007), social relationships (Woods & Kurtz, 2007), and cultural issues (Roby & Shaw, 2006). Family assessment instruments continue to be developed in efforts to help professionals to determine the risk of maltreatment (Dorsey, Mustillo, Farmer, & Elbogen, 2008). Deciding when to act and what action to take requires social workers to use critical thinking, which integrates values, ethics, policy, and research (Gray & Gibbons, 2007). The family health perspective provides this foundation for taking the appropriate action.
Summary
Despite increased attention to the assessment and intervention as well as countless federal, state, and local efforts to stop family violence, its existence seems perpetual—perhaps indicative of increased reporting, inadequate funding, and an endemic culture of violence.
Social workers are committed to help vulnerable populations, which include the victims of family violence. By law, social workers are mandated to report suspected abuse and neglect of children and older adults. By their professional code of ethics, they are responsible for being knowledgeable on various aspects of family violence, thus enabling them to help victims and their abusers. Social workers are joined by dozens of other kinds of professionals in their efforts to prevent and intervene in family violence for the enhanced well-being of all.
CASE STUDY 1.1 SPANKING OR STRIKING A CHILD IS NEVER APPROPRIATE, MOST EXPERTS SAY
Minnesota Vikings running back Adrian Peterson says he never intended to hurt his 4-year-old son when he hit him with a tree branch. But experts in childhood development said the intent does not matter—striking a child is never appropriate.
“We do have to respect other people’s cultural points of view, but the law is very clear and the research is very clear,” said Kimberly Sirl, a clinical psychologist at St. Louis Children’s Hospital. “Spanking doesn’t work, and it just makes kids mistrustful and aggressive. What we’re teaching them is fear rather than responsibility and problem-solving.”
Peterson was reinstated on Monday to the Vikings 2 days after being charged with child abuse. A prosecutor in Texas, where the running back has a home, said that the child had cuts on his legs and bruises on his back and buttocks from the incident last May. Peterson indicated in social media that he also inadvertently struck the child’s scrotum. The injuries were discovered during a routine medical exam.
“I am not a perfect son. I am not a perfect husband. I am not a perfect parent, but I am, without a doubt, not a child abuser,” Peterson said in a statement on Monday. “I am someone that disciplined his child and did not intend to cause him any injury.”
Most parents who use physical punishment do not intend to harm the child, said Deborah Sendek of the nonprofit Center for Effective Discipline in Ohio.
“Parents are looking for what works—‘How can I be a disciplinarian, how can I teach the child right from wrong and hold them accountable?’“ Sendek said.
Peterson also used a common argument in defense of corporal punishment by saying he received the same form of discipline as a child. More than 90% of American parents report physically punishing their child at some point, and most of them were spanked as children. Many parents have publicly supported Peterson by saying they consider themselves good citizens despite or even because of physical discipline they received as children.
Child psychologists and prosecutors hear that argument often. They point out that it also used to be acceptable for kids to ride bikes without helmets or ride in cars without car seats. Even in families and cultures where corporal punishment is the norm, parents can decide to end the pattern of violence toward children, experts said.
“It takes a strong person to take from our parents what was good, and throw away what wasn’t the best,” said Dr. Kathleen Berchelmann, a pediatrician at St. Louis Children’s Hospital.
Berchelmann said she occasionally spanked her oldest child years ago but has since banned the practice in her own home. The topic is one of the most controversial in pediatrics because most parents are trying to do what’s best for their children, Berchelmann said.
Corporal punishment of a child by a caregiver is legal in every state, but it crosses the line to abuse when a child is injured. Doctors and teachers are required to report to authorities any marks, bruises, cuts, or other injuries inflicted on a child. A switch, or tree branch, as Peterson used, could be considered a weapon under the law in most states.
But when talking to most parents about more typical swatting, “it’s not very effective to say it’s child abuse,” Berchelmann said. “I choose to highlight the fact that corporal punishment brings an immediate and effective behavior change but is not effective in teaching long-term self-discipline and values.”
In 19 states, including Missouri, corporal punishment is legal in public schools. In the most recent data available, Missouri ranked in the top 10 states for use of corporal punishment in schools, with more than 5,000 students receiving a physical discipline in 2006, according to a report from the U.S. Department of Education. The state still allows individual school districts to set their own rules. Local doctors said they were not aware of any recent cases of spankings in area schools.
The American Academy of Pediatrics opposes spanking because research shows it results in long-term aggression in children.
“The more children are spanked, the more anger they report as adults, the more likely they are to spank their own children, the more likely they are to approve of hitting a spouse, and the more marital conflict they experience as adults,” a statement from the group says.
The American College of Pediatricians takes a more moderate view by approving of “appropriate spanking” for children aged 2 to 7 years when milder forms of discipline have failed. “Appropriate” is defined as a couple of swats to the child’s clothed buttocks as a planned, not angry, reaction that does not leave a mark.
It is better to praise and reward good behavior than physically punish for bad behavior, experts agree. Kids should have rules and expectations for their behavior based on three simple concepts, said child psychologist Sirl: to keep them safe, to keep them healthy, and to help them get along with others.
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS
1.
What are your opinions about spanking a child?
2.
Your client is a mother who left bruises on her child from discipline. How would you work with this woman when she states that she disciplined her child the way she was disciplined?
3.
Imagine that you are told by your clients that the school spanked your child, but they do not believe in spanking. Address this situation on the micro, mezzo, and macro levels.
Source: Bernhard (2014). Copyright © 2014. Reprinted with permission from the St. Louis Post-Dispatch.
Keywords
Child abuse
Domestic violence
Family health perspective
Intimate partner violence
National Association of Social Workers’ (
Older adult abuse
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