Chapter One: The History and Incubation of Gerontechnology
KEYWORDS
aging
COST A5
De helpende hand
design
environment
gerontechnology
history
human–technology–environment interaction
incubation
prevention
products
International Society for Gerontechnology (
market
multidisciplinary
person–environment interaction
policy
services
user perspective
World Health Organization (
Before the 1990s, already many scientific disciplines devoted attention to the challenges of aging and the aging society. However, these activities stemmed mainly from the life sciences and social sciences. Some efforts were made toward integration of the research results from different disciplines as was the case in various human factors and ergonomics studies. But the involvement of technological sciences, architecture, and design was sparse or nonexistent in those days. Therefore, in 1988, a small team of researchers at the Eindhoven University of Technology, in Eindhoven, Netherlands, started an effort to develop a program of research and education in gerontechnology aiming at further integration of engineering sciences with those disciplines already involved in aging studies. The author invented the term “gerontechnology” in 1988.
CHRONOLOGY
The incubation of gerontechnology started in 1984 with the visit of a senior social worker to Eindhoven University of Technology: He asked for engineers to be involved in solving the problems and challenges encountered by aging people. The term “gerontechnology” was coined in 1988. A linguistic and content discussion about the use of this term is ongoing, but no other identifiers of the field that came up later could be appreciated as an alternative or a better solution (Graafmans & Brouwers, 1989). The first simple concepts for interdisciplinary discussion and collaboration were defined. This led to the organization of the first International Conference in 1991 in Eindhoven, with Herman Bouma acting as scientific chair (Bouma & Graafmans, 1992). The success of the conference gradually convinced many technological, social, and medical sciences researchers to come on board. During the visiting professorship of James Fozard at Eindhoven (in 1992 and later), a more elaborate model for gerontechnology studies was developed (van Bronswijk, 2010). Furthermore, in the early 1990s, the European network COST A5 (Cooperation in Science and Technology: Aging and Technology) was established. The political and scientific achievements of this network were instrumental to the success of the second international conference in Helsinki in 1996 (Graafmans, Taipale, & Charness, 1998), and in 1997 for the foundation of the International Society for Gerontechnology (
TRANSLATING NEEDS AND DEMANDS OF OLDER PEOPLE TO THE ENGINEERING COMMUNITY
In the middle of the 1980s, it became clear to the Dutch government that demographic and social developments demanded radical interventions. A research and development program was started by the Dutch Ministry of Health, Welfare and Culture, which, among other things, would facilitate collaboration between health and welfare workers and engineers, architects, and industrial designers. The ultimate goal was to create a better quality living environment for aging and aged people, supporting them to live an independent life of their own choice and for as long as possible.
An assessment was made of elderly individuals’ actual living environments with 500 questionnaires (response rate 25%), 30 site visits, and in-depth interviews. It became clear that (a) good-quality products and services exist, but most clients were not aware of this, (b) there were a lot of bad designs and many useless products, and (c) there was a need for new products and services in the market. There exists a potential for mass production at affordable prices when, at the same time, customizability to individual needs of products and services is taken into account. The assessment resulted in three major successes: (a) The field of gerontechnology was created, standing for the interdisciplinary collaboration between all professionals concerned with an aging society; (b) over 100,000 copies of “De helpende hand” (the helping hand), an information brochure, were distributed nationwide; and (c) the first simple models and concepts for gerontechnology were developed and used for a worldwide discussion between all relevant actors and experts.
After this long incubation period, a more refined human–technology–environment interaction model emerged, with an emphasis on older people, and this was used as the starting point by all the keynote speakers during the First International Conference on Gerontechnology in Eindhoven, 1991 (see Figure 1.1). The conference was a step forward toward future collaboration between technology and other sciences, targeting the challenges posed by an aging society (Bouma, 1992).
THE RESEARCH AGENDA OF GERONTECHNOLOGY
From the beginning of gerontechnology, its agenda has been the development of insight-based optimal technological environments for aging and aged individuals, targeting real people in their physical, mental, social, economic, and cultural environment. The concept of “real people” means those living an active life of their own choosing, adapted to their interests, abilities, and restrictions. It is important to understand that restricting disease, both physical and mental, is not central in gerontechnology, although health issues such as prevention and compensation of decline are part of the agenda. Rehabilitation medicine and rehabilitation technology resulting in products and services for disabled people already have a long history and gerontechnology can use these results to find solutions for the general consumer market.
In the beginning of the 1980s, the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society (
The most important principle in gerontechnology is that people are just more than only their shortcomings. Developments in the field stemmed from three dynamic sources: (a) different generations of people, (b) ever and faster changing technological environments, and (c) advancing scientific insights (Bouma, Fozard, Bouwhuis, & Taipale, 2007; Bouma, Fozard, & van Bronswijk, 2009). The position of aging people in changing, innovative environments has been characterized by Powell Lawton (1998) as individual and sociocultural lag, the origin of which is that natural adaptation to technological and other environments stops at about age 30 and is then replaced by explicit learning directed at daily needs (e.g., at work). Here, it is worthwhile to note that retraining efforts at work in general stop at age 45 or even younger and that the average age of retirement is still around 60 or earlier. This implies that formal training or work experiences are not a resource for older people to adapt or adjust to the rapid cascade of technological innovations.
RELATION BETWEEN GERONTECHNOLOGY AND MONO- AND MULTIDISCIPLINARY STUDIES ON HUMAN AGING
The major concepts of gerontechnology provide a framework for understanding and guiding research on human aging. The field is defined as the development and adaptation of technology toward the goals and ambitions of aging and aged people and it is application oriented in nature. The fundamental concepts underlying gerontechnology comprise: (a) four research and application areas of technology, (b) five domains of life activity to which technology is applicable, (c) the changing dynamics of person–environment interactions over time, and (d) the identification of a multidisciplinary knowledge base. These four concepts are relevant and can contribute to basic and applied studies of human aging.
The goals of gerontechnology are derived from those for public health such as the delay of age-associated changes in health and daily functioning (primary prevention); compensation for well-known and common functional declines, mostly in perceptual motor function (secondary prevention); care for persons with disabilities (tertiary prevention); and for all three to improve the quality of life as defined by the World Health Organization.
The four application areas of gerontechnology are equally relevant to five domains of human activity (see Table 1.1): (a) health and self-esteem, (b) housing and everyday functioning, (c) communication, (d) transportation and mobility, and (e) work and leisure (Bouma et al., 2009; van Bronswijk, Bouma, & Fozard, 2003).
The changing dynamics of interactions between people and their environment reflect both human aging within and between successive age cohorts and secular changes. This transactional view of aging addresses both the questions and methods used in gerontological research (Fozard, 2005). The interdisciplinary bases for gerontechnology, being the engineering and basic sciences of technology as well as the biological and behavioral sciences supporting gerontology, are basically the same as in gerontological research (van Bronswijk, Fozard, Kearns, Davison, & Tuan, 2008).
Life Domains/Technology Goals | Health and Self-Esteem | Housing and Daily Living | Mobility and Transport Governance | Communication | Work and Leisure |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Enrichment and Satisfaction | Self-care Software personalization | Interactive controls Teleservices E-shopping Adapting controls | Hybrid bicycles Navigation tools Info public transport | Mobile phone E-mail, e-info Multimedia E-learning mouse, touch screen | Digital camera Telegames, |
Prevention and Engagement | Healthy diet Hip protectors Health monitoring E-health info | Smart ventilation Safety illumination | Car-automation | Noise abatement Automated messages | Work simulators Social media |
Compensation and Assistance | Passive alarms Medication alerts Telerehabilitation Viagra | Cleaning robots | Scoot mobile Smart walker Navigation tools | Accommodating lens implants Cochlear implants Retinal implants Delayed speech | Garden robots Robot pets |
Care support and Care organization | Control | Electronic keys | Navigation tools | Video links | Telecare |
Note: Technological products and services mentioned do not reflect the ample opportunities as of 2015.
POLICY DEVELOPMENT RESULTING IN THE FOUNDATION OF THE INTERNATIONAL SOCIETY OF GERONTECHNOLOGY
Gerontechnology has made considerable efforts to assess and influence the development in national and international innovation policies and the opportunities these present for the sustainable growth of this emerging field. Almost endlessly, different policies on old age, technology, and innovation are reviewed by scientists and professionals concerned with the challenge of an aging society.
Population aging was insufficiently politically targeted in the 1980s, despite the United Nations Summit on Aging in 1982. Gerontological issues deserve to be understood as cultural, social, and physiological phenomena, which demand multidisciplinary research and development in this young field of endeavor. Pioneers in Europe, the United States, and Japan created the core concepts that led to the creation of gerontechnology (Graafmans et al., 1998). From the very beginning, there was a strong user perspective and user-driven orientation. One of the leitmotivs was listening to the needs of an aging person and to communicate her or his needs to the multidisciplinary innovation teams and to the wider community, summarized as user involvement.
Thus, gerontechnology constitutes an excellent partner for innovation policies. There are many interesting opportunities to be challenged by in everyday life, self-care, and proactive prevention, as well as in creating better living environments in social, financial, and human terms. The existing political and research cooperation structures were slow to understand the new needs but COST (2012) accepted the agenda Ageing and Technology (Graafmans & Taipale, 1994) and the international networks started to develop, resulting in the foundation of the International Society of Gerontechnology. The European Union explored the issue (Smith, 1998) and gave it financial recognition in a substantial grant as a part of the Fifth Framework Programme of Research.
However, later developments have not been only positive. Today, there is a considerable interest in demand-side innovation policies in a number of Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (
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