This chapter facilitates an express review of fluid/electrolyte/cellular imbalances and their regulation. It presents an overview of the condition, signs and symptoms, diagnosis, treatment, nursing interventions, and patient education of the following: acid–base imbalances; electrolyte imbalances; and fluid imbalances such as hypervolemia and hypovolemia. Electrolyte imbalance occurs when the body’s concentrations of electrolytes become either too high or too low. Electrolyte imbalances can lead to acid–base imbalances. It is advised to take electrolyte supplements, such as potassium, as instructed. The chapter depicts as a figure the normal distributions of electrolytes in the plasma, intracellular space, and extracellular spaces. It additionally presents special features such as complications, nursing pearls, alerts, and pop quizzes to highlight the key information on fluid/electrolyte/cellular regulation. The chapter also portrays in tabular form the indications, mechanism of action, contraindications, precautions, and adverse effects of various medications used to correct fluid and electrolyte imbalances.

Major depressive disorder (MDD) is one of the most common unipolar affective disorders for individuals of all ages and is associated with hypofunction of the serotonergic system. Although there is no consensus regarding the cause of depression, theories such as the monoamine theory or the neurotransmitter hypothesis contribute to scientists’ understanding of depression. These theories discuss imbalances of serotonin, dopamine, and norepinephrine and other modulating neurohormones. More contemporary theories consider depression to be a clinically heterogeneous disorder because depression originates from genetic, biochemical, and environmental factors. Depression rates increase from childhood through adolescence and into adulthood. Early recognition and intervention are the key to treatment. Treatment for depression includes psychotherapy and antidepressant medications to minimize clinical morbidity and improve clinical outcomes. Although the risk of suicidality may increase upon initiation of antidepressants, suicide risk also increases with untreated depression; therefore, careful consideration is required when managing depressed individuals (Gautam et al., 2017). This chapter details medications for the treatment of MDD.

The COVID-19 pandemic in 2020, 2021, and 2022 has provided a graphic example of an unexpected stressor that resulted in the disruption of many of our usual social systems and relationships. Children and families were isolated from many (perhaps most) of their usual social interactions and from community and societal connections and resources. The disruptions and isolation due to the pandemic occurred against the backdrop of long-standing, systemic racial inequities and injustices, many of which became startlingly evident in the aftermath of highly publicized police shootings and the resultant protests. All of this occurred in the context of a highly contentious and divisive presidential election and politicization of public health measures, which further contributed to a prevailing cultural aura of conflict, disruption, distrust, and high levels of stress (American Psychological Association [APA], 2020a). When these stressors were combined with risk factors such as poor social support systems, disrupted or nonexistent community resources, disrupted and/or substandard schools, and neighborhoods of disadvantage, the possibility of negative responses and outcomes was markedly increased.

Rural and urban populations have numerous points of intersectionality, including race, socioeconomic status, location, age, sex, and access to education and healthcare. Throughout this chapter, reference is made to these constructs as related to both populations. The base of society in America is rural communities, but future projections indicate that urban communities will eventually be dominant. This chapter also focuses on rural and urban health issues, primarily in the United States. It provides a historical and contemporary perspective and highlights variations in health outcomes among individuals in both settings. Characteristics of rural and urban communities are explained, and emphasis is placed on the future of communities created in urban environments. Barriers to healthcare for both populations are discussed, and exemplary programs that focus on improving health outcomes conclude the chapter.

Cardiovascular disease (CVD), heart and blood vessel disorders, are the leading cause of death and disability globally and in the United States (Virani et al., 2020). CVD includes coronary artery disease, stroke, heart failure, peripheral arterial disease, and other vascular conditions, and it accounts for approximately 17.9 million deaths worldwide and one out of three deaths in the United States (Fullman et al., 2018; Virani et al., 2020). In this chapter, we highlight the complexity and scope of CVD and issues that contribute to the burden of health disparities in the United States. We also illuminate race and ethnicity at the interconnection of these outcomes with socioeconomic, environmental, cultural, and other determinants of health that directly and indirectly influence population-level differences in cardiovascular risk and health outcomes.

Diabetes is now the most expensive chronic disease in the United States. It is a global concern with an estimated global cost projected to exceed $760 billion (International Diabetes Federation [IDF], 2019). This chapter (a) reviews the epidemiology, diagnosis, and treatment of diabetes; (b) explores the environmental, socioeconomic, and physiological factors, including the social determinants of health, that impact the development of type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM); (c) discusses technological and programmatic resources to help persons with diabetes; (d) discusses the impact of health literacy and numeracy on diabetes self-care practices; (e) examines communication models and mnemonics that foster relationships between patients and providers; and (f) describes the seven key focus areas for diabetes management espoused by the Association of Diabetes Care and Education Specialists (ADCES).

Psychiatric mental health nurse practitioners (PMHNPs) apply a holistic and patient-centered approach to diminish mental distress and help mental health sufferers set attainable goals and have hope for the future. Using theoretically grounded methods, PMHNPs are trained experts in the evaluation and treatment of patients with disordered feelings, thoughts, and behaviors. Structured interviews, semistructured interviews, and questionnaires have become the gold standard for diagnostic interviewing for psychiatric mental health assessments. The goal of this chapter is to offer the knowledge and skills required to conduct a mental health evaluation across populations.

Having access to healthcare is an essential component in the overall health status of all population groups. Many nations have developed and provided public health systems based on the premise that good health is a basic human right. In contrast to other economically and technologically advanced nations, the United States has a system that confers responsibility upon the individual to acquire access to fee-based private and government-funded health systems (e.g., healthcare benefits that are available to select employees; Medicare and Medicaid benefits provided to persons with disabilities and to older adults; Kiprop, 2018; Shvili, 2020).

Nurses encounter various cardiovascular problems in the medical–surgical setting. This chapter presents a high-speed review of these problems for the registered nurses preparing for their certification exams. It provides an overview of the condition, signs and symptoms, diagnosis, treatment, nursing interventions, and patient education of the following cardiovascular conditions: acute coronary syndrome; angina; myocardial infarction; aneurysm; arrhythmias; cardiomyopathy; deep vein thrombosis; endocarditis; heart failure; hyperlipidemia; hypertension; peripheral vascular disease; and shock. The chapter also presents a tabulation of the indications, mechanism of action, contraindications, precautions, and adverse effects of various cardiovascular medications. It additionally showcases special features such as complications, nursing pearls, alerts, and pop quiz to highlight important information. The quizzes consist of critical-thinking questions to evaluate the ability of nurses to synthesize what they’ve learned.

There are various endocrine problems that nurses come upon in the medical–surgical setting. This chapter provides a quick review of these endocrine conditions that serve as a refresher for the registered nurses preparing for their certification examination. It presents an overview of the condition, signs and symptoms, diagnosis, treatment, nursing interventions, and patient education of the following: adrenal insufficiency (Addison’s disease); diabetes insipidus; diabetes mellitus; diabetic ketoacidosis; hyperthyroidism; hypothyroidism; hyperfunction of the adrenals (Cushing’s disease); polycystic ovarian syndrome; and syndrome of inappropriate antidiuretic hormone. The chapter also illustrates special features such as complications, nursing pearls, alerts, and pop quizzes to emphasize the important information. In addition, it also presents indications, mechanism of action, contraindications, precautions, and adverse effects of various medications used in the treatment of diabetes and other endocrine disorders.