This chapter addresses selected measurement issues that threaten the reliability and validity of the measurement effort. Topics include social desirability, process and outcome measurement, measuring state and trait characteristics, cross-cultural measurement, and triangulation. During the selection and/or development phase of instrumentation, the investigator should consider how the respondent is likely to think about each item when responding to the measure of interest. Outcome measures help health care and social welfare agencies establish indicators against which to evaluate the success of changes made to bring about improvement, and to identify areas in processes, programs, or interventions in which improvements are still needed. The specific process that is the focus of measurement should be clearly defined in a manner that captures the essence of its characteristics. Within nursing, specific nursing interventions or programs are common processes that are the focus of measurement.

This chapter presents an overview of the state of the art ethnographies conducted by nurses and highlights a few works by the early generation. An extensive search of the literature was conducted to identify ethnographies completed by nurses. Nursing knowledge was a common thread throughout the literature reviewed. The literature review revealed the progress nursing is making in recognizing this gap and attempting to close it. Nursing knowledge is essential in patient care. Using the ethnographic method of inquiry, nurses have been able to identify areas of need both in knowledge and practice and make recommendations for enhanced practice. Caring and patient advocacy were other common themes in the literature. Caring is the essence of nursing and consequently should be incorporated in nursing research. The common purpose of the ethnographic studies reviewed was to explain or understand a phenomenon to increase nursing knowledge.

In a method-limited research program, the researchers keep choosing the trodden path, the beaten path that keeps that path a sacred groove. The current state of knowledge on the research topic and the findings from the researcher’s most recently completed project help determine whether the next step in the program of research will lead down a quantitative path, a qualitative path, or perhaps a mixed methods path. Once that is decided, the specific type of quantitative, qualitative, or mixed methods research design is the next decision to be made. The ideal point of entry for a program of research is during doctoral studies. This chapter shows some types of minds a successful researcher needs to achieve one’s goals. The synthesizing mind is also needed for nurse researchers throughout a trajectory of research. With a creative mind, a person can break new ground and consider new ideas and ways of thinking.

This chapter focuses specifically on nursing research program vertical infrastructure. Vertical infrastructure refers to the pillars of the program: the foundation that provides the support to build other services. Three essential components are used to develop a solid nursing research program foundation that advances the scientific foundation of nursing practice and promotes integration of evidence-based practices. The three components are nurse researchers who coach or mentor clinical nurses in nursing research, intranet website resources, and a research departmental database. A successful nursing research program is contingent on having the right nurse researcher personnel who can move research from project inception to dissemination in peer-reviewed literature and translation into practice. Nurse leadership may benefit from educational programs or a business plan that includes the benefits of a nursing research program and information about how a specific nursing research program aligns with strategic goals.

This chapter provides examples of programs and services beyond the foundational elements and global resources that can be used to overcome traditional nursing research barriers. It is assumed that at least one doctorate-prepared nurse researcher is available to facilitate research opportunities and educate nurses about research and evidence-based practice. Many clinical nurses fully understand their clinical roles but are completely unaware of opportunities and resources in nursing research within their hospital. Since contributions of nursing research are vital to the science and art of nursing and provide foundation for evidence-based practices, it is important to overcome the traditional cluster of barriers that include problems with nursing research visibility/priority, time and money, and research education. Nurses need confirmation that nurse leaders support research; when it is visible, it is valued. Moreover, nurses need time, education, and resources to complete rigorous research that leads to discoveries and answers to important clinical problems.

Research is a foundation of correctional nursing practice. Correctional nurses can apply general nursing research to the correctional patient population and environment to improve care outcomes. In addition, research specific to correctional nursing practice can provide a basis for nursing care delivery in the specialty setting. Evidence-based practice (EBP) expands upon research utilization to include clinical expertise and patient preference. EBP and best practice guidelines apply external sources of information to local clinical practice. By using research principles in practice, correctional nurses can have greater confidence when changing clinical practice to improve patient outcomes. Involvement in a clinical trial should be of benefit to the inmate and a possible treatment for a known condition. Common therapeutic clinical trial involvement includes treatments for cancer, human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), and Hepatitis C. Clinical issues specific to the specialty practice can be investigated to expand the knowledge base and improve patient outcomes.

There is abundant evidence of the importance of sleep and sleep disorders in nursing practice. This chapter provides a perspective on future directions in nursing research, practice, and education relative to sleep promotion and prevention and treatment of sleep disorders. It also provides an opportunity to examine some of the exciting possibilities and challenges for advancing sleep science and the implementation of this evidence in the discipline of nursing. While the contributions of nurses to sleep science are growing, the application of science to practice and pedagogy lags behind scientific progress. The chapter presents an overview of opportunities and possible directions for nursing scholarship related to sleep, and also presents an overview of current trends that intersect with the need for evidence-based practice in sleep promotion, and suggest implications for nursing curricula. The effort will require creativity, dedication, strategic planning and successful interdisciplinary collaboration, as well as collaborations within nursing.

Faith community nurses (FCN) take on a variety of roles in their practice. Recent nursing research identifies different FCN roles, all of which are related to spiritual care. In 1986, the International Parish Nurse Resource Center (IPNRC) was founded to guide the parish nurse movement and to standardize the practice of parish nursing. In 1987, the IPNRC offered its first parish nursing education courses. The American Nurses Credentialing Center (ANCC) recently announced some new expectations for the certification/recognition of any nursing specialty. These expectations involve a minimum association size and the financial resources necessary for ongoing involvement with the ANCC. Both the Health Ministries Association (HMA) and IPNRC are committed to working jointly to meet ANCC expectations. Health education is an appropriate activity for the faith community as people view their health through the lens of their faith tradition.

This chapter discusses the characteristics of sleep, factors associated with sleep, and evidence-based strategies to promote sleep in acute and critical care settings. It discusses implications for nursing practice and research. Disordered sleep is common in patients hospitalized in demographical and clinically diverse acute and critical care settings. Careful assessment for factors that increase the risk for sleep disturbance and its consequences during hospitalization is needed. Although randomized clinical trials are sparse, the available evidence suggests the promise of multimodal interventions that reduce environmental stimuli or their impact. Given the high prevalence of obstructive sleep apnea (OSA) in the general population and its underdiagnosis, there is a compelling need for assessment and preventative interventions for this condition. Research is needed on the short- and longer-term outcomes of sleep-promoting interventions on patients’ function, quality of life, and morbidity.

Jerry Cromwell has a rich history of both preparing nurse leaders in research and collaborating with nurse researchers. On the basis of his extensive experience, he offers cogent advice on leadership roles that nurses can fill in research on health care policy formulation and implementation that will change the course of health care payment, delivery, and quality throughout the United States. Cromwell believes that nurse researchers can provide leadership through the development of skills in management, program development, research, and teaching. To illustrate the characteristics of nurse research leaders, Cromwell describes one such leader with whom he has worked for more than two decades. He details her skills in project leadership, her technical research skills, and her management skills. Cromwell also identifies other nurse researchers who are leading policy development at the government levels, including those at some of the top federal agencies.