The Instigating-Impelling-Inhibiting model of intimate partner violence (IPV) etiology, or “I³ Model,” is presented as a meta-theoretical alternative to traditional perspectives regarding treatment models for perpetrators of IPV. The I³ Model is a meta-theoretical approach to understanding IPV risk that, when applied to IPV intervention programs, incorporates practically any therapeutic component that aims to decrease individual's exposure to instigating contexts, target any individual or situational factor that impels IPV, and increase an individual's ability to inhibit an aggressive response. In this review, we first briefly summarize the IPV literature and existing intervention models. Second, we review the I³ Model and illustrate its promise as a guiding framework for understanding IPV risk and its broad relevance to etiology and intervention. Third, we discuss the conceptual application of this framework to intervention with IPV perpetrators. Fourth, we identify factors that may promote as well as complicate I³ Model-related intervention developments.

Domestic violence, and specifically, violence against intimate partners, has generated a large research literature in the last few decades, particularly in the area of policy and community response and intervention. However, less attention has been given to the use of more innovative approaches in such situations, namely the use of restorative justice (RJ) interventions for intimate partner violence (IPV). The aim of this review is to provide a general overview of how RJ approaches have been utilized in the context of IPV, systematically examine the available literature on RJ approaches to IPV, describe the interventions that have been developed and empirically tested, and synthesize the findings. This review summarizes existing empirical research and literature on RJ interventions for IPV. APA PsychNet, CINAHL, Criminal Justice Abstracts, Embase, Medline PubMed, PsychInfo, PTSD Publications, SCOPUS, Social Services Abstracts, Social Work Reference Center, SocINDEX, Sociological Abstracts, and Web of Science were systematically searched for English-language publications with no restrictions on the year of publication. As a result, 14 articles and 5 book chapters (empirical studies and reviews) on interventions were included in this review. Synthesized findings highlight the awareness and meaning of RJ, significance of community, goals and outcomes of RJ, timing of program implementation, and what types of IPV cases are best suited for RJ. Additionally, the review describes current research gaps as well as the challenges and barriers of implementing RJ interventions.

Applying a “power and control” lens to high-stakes conflicts involving a trans¹ person and their intimate partner can both illuminate and distort the true picture of what is going on. This article discusses 6 ways in which discriminatory societal structures and/or cultural beliefs specific to trans people and their families can be wielded as power and control weapons by both trans people and their non-trans partners. These same “abuse tactics” may, however, simply be evidence of a lack of collaborative problem-solving beliefs and skills. The difference between the two is illustrated using common issues likely to be faced by a couple undergoing or contemplating a gender transition. This article ends with specific issues and concerns that should be addressed when safety planning with a trans person or their partner.

Intimate partner aggression (IPA) is a widespread social health problem that impacts not only the couple but the family unit as a whole. The vast majority of interventions have focused on male-to-female violence that consists of dominance and controlling tactics and neglect the therapeutic needs of the couple and their children. Thus, the first goal of this review to discuss the situations in which couples therapy is ethical as well as review the small, but growing literature on the efficacy of couples intervention. The second goal is to review the impact that exposure to IPA has on childhood development and examine the existing intervention and prevention programs for child witnesses. Based on our review, the research suggests that couples interventions are ethical for couples experiencing low-level physical aggression and that these treatments are equally effective as standard treatments for IPA in reducing violence and recidivism. Our review also concludes that individuals who witness IPA between their parents during childhood often exhibit interpersonal and intrapersonal difficulties in adulthood related to this exposure. The existing intervention and prevention programs for child witnesses appear promising.

Mental health practitioners have a responsibility to provide effective interventions to all their clients, accounting for each client's cultural context and values relevant to their well-being. In this study, eight therapists who have worked with Iranian-immigrant intimate partner violence (IPV) clients were interviewed to answer two questions: (a) What have therapists who work in the United States learned about challenges of working with Iranian IPV clients living in the United States? and (b) What suggestions do these thera-pists have for improving services to Iranian IPV clients living in the United States? In response to this question, six main themes were found: (a) Clients' lack of knowledge, (b) cultural acceptance that men are not accountable for their behaviors/gender norms in patriarchal culture, (c) women's sense of disempowerment (victim's role), (d) clients do not disclose IPV due to a sense of obligation, (e) clients' fear of consequences of disclosing, and (f) clients' difficulty trusting therapists and the mental health field. In response to the second question, that is, what suggestions do these therapists have for improving the services to Iranian IPV clients living in the United States? three main themes emerged: (a) clients need for knowledge and psychoeducation, (b) the services for Iranian-immigrant clients are not culturally appropriate, (c) therapists need to have a broad perspective of clients. Results add to the understanding of IPV grounded in the Iranian immigrant culture and ultimately contribute to a culturally based conceptualization of IPV among Iranian immigrants to sensitize therapists regarding culturally appropriate interventions that reflect the concerns of the Iranian living in the United States.

Domestic violence exists in every country, irrespective of the culture, ethnicity, age, income, and education of the women. World Health Organization has estimated that approximately 35% of women worldwide had experienced sexual or physical violence. The present study has attempted to analyze the role of different socioeconomic indicators on the prevalence of domestic violence. In this regard, data of Pakistan Demographic and Health Survey 2017–2018 has been used and logit models have been estimated. It has been found that women married below the age of 18; living in rural areas; have more children; whose mothers experienced violence; feared their husbands; with little or no autonomy in decision-making; had a bank account; married outside of the family; and had not inherited any land or property were significantly more vulnerable victims of domestic violence. It has been found that women's education, education of her husband, and exposure to media by creating awareness may protect women from domestic violence. Furthermore, working women are more likely to face domestic violence, but women who have started working before marriage are significantly less vulnerable victims of domestic violence. However, the age of women herself, the age of husband, age of household head and wealth of household, living in the nucleus or joint family, receiving any support from Benazir Income Support Program (BISP) have no significant role in determining the domestic violence in Pakistan.

This study investigated the influence of defendant characteristics, expert testimony, self-defense elements, and battered partner attributes on conviction in a homicide trial. An online sample of 442 U.S. mock jurors evaluated a self-defense scenario, provided a verdict, and answered questions pertaining to defendant culpability, legal elements, and battered partner attributes. Results showed that heterosexual female defendants were most likely to meet legal requirements of self-defense. Female participants were more likely to believe that heterosexual female defendants exhibited attributes associated with the battered partner’s syndrome (i.e., suffered from abuse and learned helplessness). Male participants were less likely to believe that homosexual male defendants suffered from attributes associated with the syndrome. There were no effects of expert testimony on the battered partner’s syndrome. Logistic regression analysis indicated that self-defense legal elements and belief that the defendant should have left the abusive relationship predicted greater likelihood of conviction. Limitations and implications for jury selection and attorney arguments are discussed.

This article describes a methodology for safe therapeutic practice developed more than 16 years in the specialist family violence service—Reading Safer Families, UK (Cooper & Vetere, 2005). This article focuses on how a safety methodology developed in a specialist service can be adapted for use in mainstream mental health and therapeutic services, across the life span, when violence is of concern.

Intimate partner violence (IPV) affects victims in ways beyond initial abuse experiences. This study examines one of these victim experiences, that of relational uncertainty. Former IPV (N = 345, n = 106 males, 239 females) victims completed surveys based on their former heterosexual romantic relationships. Results indicated that male and female relational uncertainty experiences differed and corresponded with type of IPV relationship (i.e., situational couple violence [SCV] or intimate terrorism [IT]) and gender (i.e., masculinity) affiliation. Results are discussed in terms of how they both reinforce and challenge current theorizing about IPV and relational uncertainty. Both scholarly implications and practical applications to victims are presented.

Cyber psychological abuse and social media surveillance of ex-partners are relatively common virtual forms of behavior linked with intimate partner violence (Pineda, Galán, Martínez-Martínez, Campagne, & Piqueras, 2021) as well as on-going and dangerous intimate partner stalking (Logan & Langhinrichsen-Rohling, 2021). While both forms of behavior are concerning, especially after the dissolution of a romantic relationship, transdiagnostic shared and unique predictors of each are relatively unknown. In the current study, we examined the associations between intolerance of uncertainty and emotion dysregulation and the perpetration of post-breakup cyber psychological abuse and social media surveillance. We asked college students (n = 284) to report on their intolerance of uncertainty, emotion dysregulation difficulties (particularly difficulties engaging in goal directed behavior, impulse control difficulties, and lack of emotional clarity), and behaviors towards their ex-partner associated with the perpetration of cyber psychological abuse and social media surveillance. Participants reported engaging in an average of 2.4 (SD = 2.17) post-breakup behaviors associated with cyber psychological abuse and 4.47 (SD = 3.60) different acts of social media surveillance. Mediation models supported the premise that intolerance of uncertainty is predictive of emotion dysregulation, which, in turn, mediated the association between intolerance of uncertainty and both cyber psychological abuse and social media surveillance. Subscale analyses specifically highlighted difficulties engaging in goal-directed behavior as an important mediator of both behaviors. Taken together, this suggests that intolerance of uncertainty and poor emotion regulation after a relationship breakup are potential drivers of unhealthy ex-partner focused behaviors on social media and other electronic mediums of communication.

This study investigates the prevalence of adolescent intimate partner violence (IPV) perpetration, IPV victimization, and controlling behaviors among 486 heterosexual high school students. Participants completed surveys that measured three types of IPV victimization (sexual, physical, and psychological) and two types of controlling behaviors (intimidation and threats). Results reveal high prevalence of dating violence in youth: 46% emotional violence, 34% physical violence, and 16% sexual violence. Participants had a mean age of 15.7 years, 51% of the sample was male, and all participants were in a current relationship. Structural equation modeling explored the relationship between “violent attitudes” and “controlling behaviors” predicting IPV perpetration. The study found no gender differences between IPV perpetration and IPV victimization. However, gender differences were found regarding females’ IPV victimization being reduced when controlling behaviors are not present. Interestingly, IPV victimization is reduced by not having controlling behaviors and only having violent attitudes. The study posits that gender socialization may attribute to females reducing their IPV victimization when controlling behaviors are not present.

Sexual coercion of women is a common problem in couples that is often conceptualized as a facet of sexual assault or as a form of psychological aggression. Because psychological aggression is consistently linked to depressive symptoms, the researchers evaluated the unique contribution of sexual coercion victimization in the prediction of depressive symptoms beyond the variance explained by psychological aggression victimization. Sample 1 consisted of women living with a partner for at least a year and parenting a young child, whereas Sample 2 consisted of undergraduate students in relationships of at least 6 months. Overall, 27.4% of the women in Sample 1 and 22.8% of the women in Sample 2 reported experiencing sexual coercion victimization. Across both samples, depressive symptoms and psychological aggression victimization were significantly greater in women who experienced sexual coercion victimization. In addition, sexual coercion victimization and psychological aggression victimization each contributed significantly and uniquely to the prediction of depressive symptoms. Thus, although related to psychological aggression victimization, sexual coercion in an intimate relationship is a distinct construct. Implications for assessment, prevention, and couple therapy are discussed.

This study determines the needs of men experiencing domestic abuse from an intimate partner. In-depth interviews with 6 men who sought support are analyzed using interpretive phenomenological analysis (IPA). Four master themes (interpreted as needs) are identified from analysis, “recognition” (of male victims and the impact), “safety,” “accepting domestic abuse,” and “rebuilding.” A need for recognition is identified as the dominant theme influencing the capacity for the 3 remaining needs to be met. Domestic abuse is generally understood to be a gendered, heteronormative experience. Abused men are not acknowledged as “typical” victims. The lack of recognition prevented participants from accepting and recognizing their victimization resulting in delayed help-seeking and prolonged abuse. A joint commitment is required from policy and practice to raise the profile of abused men, challenge wider society's prevailing norms, and embed equal status for all victims.

Despite recent growth in female dating violence perpetration research, little is known about college women’s expected outcomes of physical aggression perpetration in a dating relationship. Furthermore, no known studies have investigated women’s expected outcomes of dating aggression within the context of a specific dating violence episode or examined the extent to which expected outcomes are consistent or inconsistent with actual dating aggression outcomes. The purpose of this study is to qualitatively investigate the range of dating violence expected and actual outcomes reported by college women with a recent history of physical dating violence perpetration. Twenty female undergraduate students completed individual contextually based interviews regarding their expected and actual outcomes of physical dating aggression perpetration surrounding their most recent dating violence episode. Interviews were analyzed using a theoretical thematic analysis approach. Nine main expected outcome themes reflecting a range of both rewarding and punitive consequences were identified, including no expectations—just reacted, nothing would happen, escape or end aversive interaction with partner, modify partner attention, increase partner compliance, increase physical space. facilitate communication, alter emotional state, and partner retaliation. Interestingly, use of physical aggression to stop or blunt partner’s physical aggression was not an expected outcome reported by any of the participants. Findings indicate that participants’ expected outcomes were often consistent with the actual outcomes of dating aggression. However, a subset of participants also reported actual outcomes inconsistent with expectations and many reported additional unanticipated outcomes. Study limitations, clinical implications, and directions for future research are discussed.

The mounting cost of domestic violence (DV) homicide in the United States has led to increased attention from law enforcement agencies and social organizations and the establishment of domestic violence fatality review boards or teams (DVFRTs) throughout the country. These teams are tasked with reviewing a specified set of DV-related fatality cases to determine the factors that contributed to the fatalities and whether there are changes that can be made to prevent future similar incidents. There exists, however, little to no standardization of practice and procedures among DVFRTs, resulting in wide variability among the reports they produce. The purpose of this study is to empirically analyze the content of DVFRT reports across the United States to summarize standard practices in DVFRT reporting and to inform the procedures of existing and future DVFRTs. The researchers conducted a content analysis of 47 DVFRT reports to determine what information is most typically included in these reports on state, county, and city levels. A summary of findings and recommendations for DVFRTs is included.

Previous research suggests that intimate partner violence (IPV) is a complex phenomenon that may be better understood through typological explanations. Notably, different IPV subtypes are likely to be differently related to the causes and consequences of violence. However, most typologies focus exclusively on male-perpetrated IPV and are based on highly selective samples. The aim of the current study was to define an empirically derived IPV typology that is gender-inclusive and allows for the identification of both gender symmetric and asymmetric IPV subtypes. Latent class analysis (LCA) was used as an objective method to identify the subtypes in a sample of victims of physical or sexual IPV (N = 856) from the Finnish National Crime Victim Survey (FNCVS). Five variables were used as the basis of the classification: gender of the victim, control-seeking by the perpetrator, the generality of the perpetrator's violent behavior, substance use by the perpetrator, and the bidirectionality of the violence in the relationship. The results reveal three IPV classes: IPV-only perpetrator (IOP), substance-related violence (SRV), and generally violent and controlling perpetrator (GVC). In the IOP class, the gender distribution of the victims was equal, whereas the two other classes were experienced predominately by women. Moreover, the classes were differentially associated with injuries and police reporting. While the current study replicates some previous findings, the finding of SRV as a separate IPV subtype is novel. Overall, the current study provides support for the general idea of several types of IPV, which should be acknowledged both in future research and intervention policies.

Existing research suggests that a significant stigma surrounds intimate partner violence, and this stigma can make it difficult for survivors to receive help. This article presents the results of a research study that used hierarchical cluster analysis to identify whether certain types of stigma are more likely to co-occur. Survey results revealed four clusters based on participants’ stigma-related experiences: low stigma, blamed and black sheep, shame and separation, and high stigma. Participants in the high stigma group reported the highest levels of verbal abuse. Implications for theory, research, and practice are discussed.

Research has attempted to elucidate men and women’s proximal motivations for perpetrating intimate partner violence (IPV). However, previous research has yet to clarify and resolve contention regarding whether motives for IPV are gender-neutral or gender-specific. Thus, the purpose of this study was to compare motives for physical IPV perpetration among a sample of men (n = 90) and women (n = 87) arrested for domestic violence and court referred to batterer intervention programs. Results demonstrated that the most frequently endorsed motives for IPV by both men and women were self-defense, expression of negative emotions, and communication difficulties. With the exception of expression of negative emotions and retaliation, with women endorsing these motives more often than men, there were no significant differences between men and women’s self-reported reasons for perpetrating physical aggression. The implications of these findings for future research and intervention programs are discussed.

Interventions for men who perpetrate intimate partner violence (IPV) have historically been relatively ineffective at reducing or stopping subsequent IPV. However, there are several strong theoretical reasons that suggest Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (ACT), an intervention that emphasizes the use of mindfulness and aims to foster psychological flexibility, may be particularly well-suited to interrupting the factors that maintain IPV. The goal of the present article is to review the evidence for the application of ACT to target IPV. In addition, empirical studies that have, to date, shown promising initial support for a targeted intervention (Achieving Change Through Values-Based Behavior; ACTV) are reviewed. The implications for using ACT-based skills with perpetrators of IPV are discussed, along with potential future directions and further applications of ACT to hard-to-treat populations.

Despite evidence that the incidence of female-to-male intimate partner violence (IPV) in the general population is as high as that of male-to-female intimate violence, until recently little attention has been devoted to understanding women perpetrators of partner violence or to the design of programs to address their violence. This study explored the characteristics of female perpetrators of IPV in an offender population and examined the context, consequences, and motives for their aggression. There were 897 women serving a federal sentence in the Correctional Service of Canada at the time of data extraction, of whom 15% (n = 135) had a history of IPV. Results indicated that these offenders were most often classified as moderate criminal risk and high criminogenic need. Most had been victims of severe abuse during their youth and in adult relationships. Women’s motives for violence were diverse. Although most women had a history of mutual violence with their partners, 64% were the primary perpetrators in at least 1 incident. Violence in self-defense or in defense of their children were the least frequently coded categories. Similar to a comparison group of male offenders, the Spousal Assault Risk Assessment tool indicated that the most common risk factors associated with women’s IPV included past physical assault against intimate partners, substance abuse, and employment problems. These findings reinforce the need for a correctional programming targeting the diverse circumstances and motivations of women who are violent against their partners.

As heterosexual cohabitation of unmarried youths continues to rise in a sexually conservative Nigerian society, not much research attention has been paid to cohabiters' exposure to intimate partner violence (IPV). Therefore, this article explores the nature, patterns, and responses of female university students in campus cohabitation to incidences of violence. Drawing on a bricolage of theories, the study examined the social and psychological facilitators of cohabitation of students in Nigerian tertiary institutions and the attendant risks of IPV. Adopting an interpretivist philosophy, qualitative data were collected through 43 interviews conducted with female undergraduate students of three purposively selected universities in South West Nigeria. The study discovered a high occurrence of physical, sexual, social, economic, and emotional violence being experienced by female cohabiters. The risk exposure of Nigeria's female students in cohabitation is particularly made ominous by their acceptance of violent partners and violence as inevitable realities of romantic relationship. As a result of parental lack of knowledge or approval of campus cohabitation and the deep conservative nature of Nigerian society, there is low reportage of IPV, and victims rather endure violent experiences than seek intervention. The article advocates a revisit of the socialization processes of Nigerian society, and addressing of orientations that leaves female gender susceptible to violence acceptance in heterosexual dating relationships.

A 15-page questionnaire, the North American Domestic Violence Intervention Program Survey, was sent to directors of 3,246 domestic violence perpetrator programs (also known as batterer intervention programs, or BIPs) in the United States and Canada. Respondent contact information was obtained from state Coalitions Against Domestic Violence and from various government agencies (e.g., Attorney General) available on the Internet. Two hundred thirty-eight programs completed and returned the questionnaire, a response rate of 20%. The survey yielded descriptive data on respondent characteristics; program philosophy, structure, content, and service; client characteristics; treatment approach and adjunct services; and group facilitator views on intervention approaches and domestic violence policy and treatment standards. The programs varied in the extent to which they adhere to treatment approaches suggested by the empirical research literature. In addition, chi-square analyses were conducted on the associations between several factors. Significant correlations were found between respondent low level of education and adherence to a feminist-gendered program philosophy; respondent low level of education and use of a shorter assessment protocol; feminist-gendered program philosophy and incorrect facilitator knowledge about domestic violence; and feminist-gendered program philosophy and a program focus on power and control as the primary cause of domestic violence.

The aim of this study was to test 2 of Johnson’s (1995) assumptions regarding intimate partner violence (IPV), namely, that there are sex differences in the type of physical aggression men and women use and that controlling aggression is more problematic and requires more outside intervention than noncontrolling aggression. These assumptions were tested using survey data from the 13th cycle of the General Social Survey in Canada, which was a telephone survey that asked crime victimization questions in several areas. There were no sex differences in the use of controlling behavior or physical aggression. Controlling aggression did not have an effect on problem presentation when compared with relationships low in controlling behaviors. There was mixed support for Johnson’s work and the utility of his typology is questioned.

Scholarship of intimate partner abuse is heavily dominated by a gendered paradigm that has strongly impacted on the development and delivery of services and treatment programs; however it is not inclusive to all victim and perpetrator groups. The gendered viewpoint of the male abuser and female victim is critiqued by identifying gender differences in intimate partner abuse research, and the impact this has on male victims. A further critique challenges the dominant research trend that has favored working with younger victims and perpetrators, with an analysis of the impact and issues for older adults and their help-seeking. Implications for practice are discussed. The lack of support services for male victims and older adults is identified, as well as the focus of treatment practice on the male abuser. Finally, an argument to support more vulnerable groups such as older men who are absent within intimate partner abuse literature and service development is presented.

The Conflict Tactics Scale 2 (CTS2) is one of the most widely used measures for assessing violence between intimate partners. Many studies exploring its psychometric properties show factor structures that vary according to samples, analysis, or scale forms employed. This work aimed to evaluate the psychometric properties of the CTS2 in 819 undergraduates in Argentina. Some items had to be excluded from the analysis because of their null prevalence in this sample. Confirmatory factor analysis of the original five-factor model for perpetrated and suffered violence CTS2 forms indicated a good fit to the data in both men and women. Internal consistency was good for all subscales except for the perpetrated and suffered sexual coercion and perpetrated injuries subscales. The highest inter-factor correlations were found between the psychological aggression and physical assault subscales in the perpetration models, and between the physical assault and injuries subscales in the victimization models. Practical and theoretical implications of the results are discussed, and future lines of research are proposed.

Intimate partner violence (IPV) affects gay men in a particular way with regard to its prevalence, forms, and consequences. There are still many aspects of the problem that require research. We know for example that the separation of the partners does not always put an end to IPV. It is not however known how it evolves in relationships between separated men, since our knowledge has been developed mainly with couples in heterosexual relationships. Based on the results of a qualitative study conducted in the Province of Québec, this article describes IPV and its consequences in a separation context. We initially conducted individual semi-structured interviews with 23 men who had experienced violence in the overall separation context of their intimate relationship with another man. We then conducted two discussion groups with 14 practitioners from related fields. These results showed that the partners’ union and separation were not binary and that the separation instead follows a three-phase process. Different acts of psychological, sexual, physical, and economic violence and their consequences were reported during these different phases. This study allows us to deepen our understanding of the IPV experienced by gay men in a separation process. It particularly sheds light on acts of violence rooted in a heterosexist social context and in the context of different types of sexual agreements. Implications for practitioners working with gay men who are subjected to or perpetrate IPV as well as for educators and state policymakers are discussed.

Accurate identification of partner abuse (PA) victims and perpetrators is essential to secondary prevention of such violence. Important progress has been made regarding identification of female victims of PA but significantly less scholarly attention has been given to screening instruments that capture men’s PA experiences. The purpose of this article is to briefly review the history of PA screening methods/instruments used and to provide an organized critique of screening tools used with men today. A gender-inclusive approach was used to critique 8 PA screening tools along the following themes: theoretical/paradigmatic approach, language, abuse type, severity and frequency, format, and psychometric data. Strengths of the instruments included (a) use of gender-neutral language in item wording, (b) screening for multiple forms of PA, (c) assessment of frequency of violent acts, and (d) collection of psychometric data with men. Recommendations for future practice include a list of questions for clinicians to use when selecting a screening tool. These questions will assist clinicians and scholars to consider the strengths and limitations of each tool and make more informed choices about the instruments they are using to screen men. Future research recommendations included (a) a call to the field to use a gender-inclusive framework in developing PA screening tools, (b) for developers to clearly label and outline theories or paradigms used to develop instruments, and (c) to obtain psychometric data for diverse groups of men, across various settings (e.g., community mental health agencies, private practice, college campuses).

Women who experience domestic violence are more likely to use or become dependent on substances. Their health and safety are at greater risk when Violence Against Women (VAW) shelters have policies prohibiting admission if noticeably impaired. Harm reduction strategies can help reduce harms caused by substance use. Minimal research was found about impacts of integrating harm reduction in VAW shelters. We examined women's experiences with a harm reduction service delivery model at a Canadian rural VAW shelter. Interviews were conducted with 25 former residents to explore their experiences. Most women preferred to have harm reduction implemented, although most women also wanted changes made to harm reduction practices. These recommended changes would enhance positive experiences and feelings of safety for all women, thereby achieving the goal of all women welcome. Overall, our findings support the integration of harm reduction in VAW shelters that balances harm reduction philosophy and practices with the individualized needs of traumatized women and safety of children.

Trust is essential to the development of healthy, secure, and satisfying relationships (Simpson, 2007a). Attachment styles provide a theoretical framework for understanding how individuals respond to partner behaviors that either confirm or violate trust (Hazan & Shaver, 1994). The current research aimed to identify how trust and attachment anxiety might interact to predict different types of jealousy and physical and psychological abuse. We expected that when experiencing lower levels of trust, anxiously attached individuals would report higher levels of both cognitive and behavioral jealousy as well as partner abuse perpetration. Participants in committed romantic relationships (N = 261) completed measures of trust, attachment anxiety and avoidance, jealousy, and physical and psychological partner abuse in a cross-sectional study. Moderation results largely supported the hypotheses: Attachment anxiety moderated the association between trust and jealousy, such that anxious individuals experienced much higher levels of cognitive and behavioral jealousy when reporting lower levels of trust. Moreover, attachment anxiety moderated the association between trust and nonphysical violence. These results suggest that upon experiencing distrust in one’s partner, anxiously attached individuals are more likely to become jealous, snoop through a partner’s belongings, and become psychologically abusive. The present research illustrates that particularly for anxiously attached individuals, distrust has cascading effects on relationship cognitions and behavior, and this should be a key area of discussion during therapy.

Among a number of recommendations and standards related to interventions for perpetrators of intimate partner violence is a clear implication that male and female offenders should receive gender specific services. Such segregation often assumes a potential danger to or exacerbation of victimization for the women or else identifies such distinct etiologies for violent behaviors that the treatment needs must be equally disparate. Described herein is a program that provides services for men and women in the same setting. Supporting this intervention is the belief that a significant number of those referred experience similar motivation for their thoughts, feelings, and actions and that therapeutic response will be correspondingly similar. Further, because people live, work, and play in mixed settings, it is more realistic and, it is hoped, more therapeutic to consider—and practice—changes in mixed settings as well. Pertinent factors in conducting these groups are presented, as are one presenter’s perspective on advantages and disadvantages of such a structure. Finally, considerations for research are offered.

We examined gender-related attitudes as correlates of physical and psychological aggression perpetration and victimization among 325 undergraduate students in dating relationships. It was hypothesized that adversarial sexual beliefs and acceptance of interpersonal violence would be positively correlated with physical and psychological aggression perpetration and victimization in both men and women. Results indicated that adversarial sexual beliefs were consistently associated with relationship aggression, whereas the acceptance of interpersonal violence was not. Specifically, adversarial sexual beliefs were significantly correlated with perpetration of dating aggression in both genders and with experiencing aggression in men. Findings suggest that adversarial sexual beliefs place those in dating relationships at relatively higher risk for problems with aggression.

Physical violence in intimate relationships affects men, women, and families worldwide. Although the body of research examining the experiences of male victims of intimate partner violence (IPV) has grown, there have been few attempts to synthesize, compare, and contrast findings regarding the prevalence of male and female victimization. We examined research published in the last 10 years to summarize the current state of knowledge regarding the prevalence of physical IPV victimization in heterosexual relationships. Our specific aims were to (a) describe the prevalence of physical IPV victimization in industrialized, English-speaking nations; and (b) explore study and sample characteristics that affect prevalence. Literature searches undertaken in three databases (PubMed, PsycINFO, and Web of Science) identified 750 articles published between 2000 and 2010. We included 249 articles that reported 543 rates of physical IPV victimization in our review: 158 articles reported 318 rates for women, 6 articles reported 8 rates for men, and 85 articles reported 217 rates for both men and women. Most studies were conducted in the United States (k = 213, 85.5%) and almost half (k = 118, 47.4%) measured IPV using a Conflict Tactics Scale-based approach. Unweighted, pooled prevalence estimates were calculated for female and male victimization overall and by sample type, country, measurement time frame, and measurement approach. Across studies, approximately 1 in 4 women (23.1%) and 1 in 5 men (19.3%) experienced physical violence in an intimate relationship, with an overall pooled prevalence estimate of 22.4%. Analyses revealed considerable variability in rates as a function of methodological issues, indicating the need for standardized measurement of IPV.

The current research explored whether interpersonal problems (IP) and family of origin relations mediate the association between attachment dimensions and intimate partner violence (IPV). The participants included 55 females in treatment for IPV as part of their probation. We examined the mediation relationships using a bootstrapping multiple mediation method. Results indicated that IP but not family type, significantly mediated the relationship between avoidant attachment, but not anxious attachment and IPV. Greater attachment avoidance was associated with higher levels of IP, which in turn, were associated with higher physical violence toward an intimate male partner. Several alternative models were tested resulting in nonsignificant mediation analyses, thus, lending support to the validity of the attachment avoidant mediation model. Suggestions were offered for treatment relevant to the results.

Little information is available about couples experiencing intimate partner violence (IPV) who voluntarily seek couples therapy. We examined the characteristics of 129 couples who sought therapy for IPV to learn more about this population. A majority of the sample, 74%, experienced bilateral physical violence, 16% experienced unilateral male violence, and 5% experienced unilateral female violence. Conflict theory is used to explain the finding that couples experiencing bilateral violence reported higher levels of physical violence and injury than did those experiencing unilateral violence. Bilaterally violent couples also experienced more jealousy and psychological aggression and less relationship satisfaction than either group of unilaterally violent couples. Implications and suggestions for clinicians are offered, as well as ideas for future research.

One hotly debated topic within the field of intimate partner violence (IPV) is the degree to which IPV can be understood as primarily a unidirectional versus bidirectional phenomena; this topic forms a key component of the gender symmetry versus asymmetry of domestic violence debate. Resolution of this controversy has important prevention and intervention implications. In the current study, a comprehensive review of the literature was conducted, and 48 studies that reported rates of bidirectional versus unidirectional physical violence (male-to-female and female-to-male) were uncovered using a variety of search engines and key terms; one relevant meta-analysis and one seminal book chapter were also identified. Included empirical studies were published in 1990 or later, appeared in peer-reviewed journals, and contained empirical data directly related to bidirectionality of violence. Studies that only reported correlations between self-reported perpetration and victimization were excluded from these analyses. Qualifying studies were then categorized by the nature of the sample they assessed (i.e., large population samples; smaller community; purposive or convenience samples; clinical or treatment-seeking samples; legal/criminal justice-related samples; and samples assessing the relationships of gay, lesbian, and/or bisexual individuals). Rates of bidirectional versus unidirectional violence (male-toward-female vs. female-toward-male) were summarized directly as reported or were derived on the basis of data contained within the article.

All obtained studies (48 empirical, 1 meta-analysis, 1 book chapter) were then entered into an online summary table for public review; however, additional results were specifically calculated for the current article. These results indicate that bidirectional violence was common across all types of samples (population-based to criminal justice). This suggests that the role of women in violent relationships is important to consider, even if all aspects of women’s perpetration of IPV are not symmetrical to men’s perpetration of IPV. A second finding to emerge was that the ratio of unidirectional female-to-male compared to male-to-female IPV differed significantly among samples with higher rates of female-perpetrated unidirectional violence found in four of the five sample types considered. Higher ratios of male-to-female unidirectional violence were found only in criminal justice/legal studies that relied on police reports of IPV perpetration and/or in samples drawn from the U.S. military. Competing explanations for the differing ratios were offered in the current discussion. These need to be tested empirically in order to fully understand the expression of IPV across samples and settings. Differences in the directionality of the expression of IPV were not found in samples of gay, lesbian, or bisexual individuals; however, rates of bidirectional violence appear to vary by race/ethnicity with higher rates of bidirectional violence among Black couples. Overall, it is suggested that if one resolution of the gender symmetry/asymmetry debate is to argue that there are subtypes of male and female domestic violence perpetrators (Johnson, 2005; Johnson, 2006), or that there are different patterns of violence among different types of relationships characterized by IPV (Stets & Straus, 1989), researchers and clinicians will need to work together to determine how to reliably and meaningfully make these determinations in ways that will facilitate our ability to effectively prevent and treat all types of IPV.

Despite longstanding investigation into the experiences and needs of female victims of domestic violence and abuse (DVA), and a burgeoning literature on abused men, information on service engagement by both of these groups is limited, particularly in direct comparison. This is in part due to a lack of large-scale quantitative data on victim needs upon presentation to services. The current study presents the first of a two-part examination of data collected from specialist DVA services in the UK supporting predominantly high-risk clients between 2007 and 2017. Case data from a total of 34,815 clients (858 men and 33,957 women) was assessed across five key areas: demographic characteristics, routes of referral into service, context of abuse, reported abuse type, and outcomes and risk factors of abuse. Clients tended to be white, with men being older on average. Men and women had similar referral routes, but men were more likely to have a disability of some kind and women were more likely to have children living/visiting the home. Men were more likely to report physical abuse than women, whilst women were more likely to report sexual abuse and harassment/stalking. There were no significant differences in the frequency of reporting jealous/controlling behaviours. Results also showed that women were more likely to have attempted to leave, and to call the police, with men more likely to suffer from alcohol/drug problems and reporting poorer physical health. However, it should be noted that almost all such differences had small effect sizes, suggesting greater similarity between male and female clients than difference. Results are discussed in the context of the importance of recognising both the shared and unique risk factors of client groups upon presentation to services.

Dating abuse (DA) victimization, alcohol use, and marijuana use are some of the most prevalent public health concerns among adolescents, particularly among Latinx adolescents. DA victimization was a robust predictor of subsequent alcohol and marijuana use among white and Black/African American adolescents, but existing longitudinal studies have not examined these relations among Latinx adolescents. The present study examined whether Latinx adolescents’ psychological and physical DA victimization predicted their alcohol and marijuana use one year later. We also explored sex differences in these relationships across time. A school-based sample of 315 Latinx adolescents (M age = 15.06 years; 52.6% girls) completed baseline, self-report assessments (Time 1 [T1]) and 89.6% of the sample completed follow-up assessments one year later (Time 2 [T2]). Results of a path analysis revealed that paths did not vary by sex. T1 psychological DA victimization predicted T2 alcohol use, but not T2 marijuana use. T1 physical DA victimization did not predict T2 alcohol or marijuana use; however, T1 marijuana use predicted T2 physical DA victimization. Latinx adolescents’ DA victimization may have important implications for subsequent substance use. Targeting alcohol use, marijuana use, and DA in culturally-grounded intervention programs may reduce Latinx adolescents’ continued victimization and substance misuse.

Despite considerable research on the predictive accuracy of risk scales, there is limited research exploring other factors that influence perceptions of risk. We recruited participants (N = 1,955) from Amazon's Mechanical Turk to read a vignette about a fictional intimate partner violence offender, varying risk level on a fictional scale (low or high), perpetrator gender (cis male, cis female, or transgender female), victim gender (cis male or cis female), and mental health diagnosis (none, schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, or anxiety disorder). The strongest effect was for the risk scale, with offenders perceived as highest risk when the scale reported “high risk” as opposed to “low risk.” The other main effects were also statistically significant. Cases were perceived as riskier when the perpetrator was cis male or the victim was cis female. Regarding mental health diagnosis, the highest risk ratings were provided in the schizophrenia condition. There was also a significant interaction among risk level, perpetrator gender, and diagnosis. The extent to which participants relied on gendered stereotypes about the relationship between mental illness and violence when providing risk judgments should be examined in future research. Overall, these findings enhance our understanding of characteristics that are secondary to risk level but are likely to influence case management decisions in cases of intimate partner violence.

This study examined the relations among involvement in intimate partner psychological abuse, alcohol-related problems, and suicide proneness as measured by the Life Attitudes Schedule—Short Form (LAS-SF) in college women (N = 709). Results revealed that, as expected, being involved in a psychologically abusive relationship was significantly and positively correlated with alcohol-related problems and alcohol-related problems were significantly and positively correlated with suicide proneness. Additionally, the intimate partner psychological abuse involvement-suicide proneness link was significantly mediated by alcohol-related problems. Implications are offered for the improved identification and treatment of young women at risk for suicidal and health-diminishing behaviors.

Despite the increased social recognition, law and policy changes within the criminal justice system, and the widespread use of court mandated batterer intervention programs (BIPs) domestic violence continues to be a persistent problem. The lack of significant decline in incidence rates along with a growing body of empirical evidence that indicates BIPs are, at best, only moderately effective raises serious concern. Effective policies and programs should be based on empirically tested theory. The assertion “the batterer’s motive is power and control” has become fundamental to many of the currently used BIPs and accepted mainstream theoretical explanations regarding domestic violence. However, the domestic violence literature has not yet advanced any specific conceptualizations of power, it has not produced a theoretical model of power that articulates why or how power specifically acts as a motive for a batterer, nor has it empirically tested this fundamental assertion. The main goal of this article is to take a step toward addressing this gap and advance our current understanding of an individual’s sense of power and control as a motive for using violence against an intimate partner. Specifically, it will review the pertinent literature regarding power and domestic violence, propose a new theoretical construct called internal power, and discuss internal power’s application to understanding a batterer’s “power motive.”

Rates of female-perpetrated intimate partner violence (IPV) have been historically underestimated. Although much of the empirical literature has focused on male perpetration, there has been a more recent interest in understanding the etiology of female-perpetrated IPV. Although emotion regulation has received attention in predicting risk for violence perpetration for both men and women, less is known regarding cognitive factors that influence perpetration risk. Furthermore, interactive effects that account for both self-regulatory and cognitive factors have remained largely unexplored. This study looks at the interactive effect of emotion regulation and world assumptions in predicting IPV perpetration in a community sample of females. Consistent with previous research, emotion regulation difficulties were significantly related to greater physical and psychological perpetration. Moderation analyses revealed that holding strong beliefs that one can and should be in control of oneself amplified the relationship between emotion dysregulation and IPV perpetration that was both psychological and physical in nature. Contrary to predictions, enhanced risk for physical IPV perpetration was also observed among those with high levels of emotion regulation difficulties and greater assumptions that the world is a benevolent place. Clinical and theoretical implications are discussed.

The first part of this article summarizes results from more than 200 studies that have found gender symmetry in perpetration and in risk factors and motives for physical violence in martial and dating relationships. It also summarizes research that has found that most partner violence is mutual and that self-defense explains only a small percentage of partner violence by either men or women. The second part of the article documents seven methods that have been used to deny, conceal, and distort the evidence on gender symmetry. The third part of the article suggests explanations for the denial of an overwhelming body of evidence by reputable scholars. The concluding section argues that ignoring the overwhelming evidence of gender symmetry has crippled prevention and treatment programs. It suggests ways in which prevention and treatment efforts might be improved by changing ideologically based programs to programs based on the evidence from the past 30 years of research.

In the United Kingdom, “domestic violence” services are predominantly segregated and therapeutic interventions offered mainly to either female “survivors/victims” or male “perpetrators.” Semi-structured interviews were carried out with 20 U.K. practitioners with the aim of deconstructing their understandings and approach to therapeutic practice using a thematic analysis. Their practices were found to be mainly informed by the gender paradigm, reflecting assumptions that men’s abusive behavior was instrumental and chosen, whereas women behaved aggressively primarily in retaliation or defense. When negotiating sensitive, potentially dilemmatic issues, such as women revealing abusive behavior or men speaking about victimization, participants differed in the extent to which they experienced, or showed awareness of, cognitive dissonance. Those participants who took a gender perspective tended to scapegoat male “perpetrators” and excuse the behavior of female “victims,” whereas those who took a gender-inclusive approach were more likely to speak about the motivation of both partners and other contributory factors maintaining the problem. The findings support the view that domestic violence services in the United Kingdom have been slow to respond to calls by researchers to bring more psychological theory and relational awareness to understandings of intimate partner violence (IPV) and its practices.